Defining Europe

The essential starting point of any discussion about Europe is the question "What is Europe?" or, perhaps more clearly, "Where is Europe?". The answer to this question depends on the criterion by which Europe is defined.

The geographical answer to the question "What is Europe?" is easiest to provide, since a certain degree of consensus exists on this topic. The southern, western and northern borders are clear and demarcated by the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic Ocean respectively. Along the eastern edge the situation is more controversial, but in general the Bosporus Strait, the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Ural River and Mountains are accepted as the borders.

The cultural and political definitions of Europe, however, are much more contentious. If we use historic and cultural experiences to delineate Europe – such as the processes of enlightenment or reformation – it is almost impossible to come to a set of experiences that comprises all countries that are European in the geographic sense. On the political level, by comparison, Europe is increasingly conflated with the European Union (EU), an association that is naturally unpopular in non-EU countries lying within the borders of geographical Europe. These countries, whilst not in the EU, are invariably members of the Council of Europe, and may reasonably claim the member list thereof as a definition of Europe.

Overall, there are certain countries which we can say with certainty are part of Europe, and others where there is reason for debate. It is not the purpose of this Forum, however, to attempt problematic definitions, but to take an inclusive approach and encourage the consideration of this problem in more detail.

Europe and the European Union

Cultural Diplomacy in Europe: A Forum for Young Leaders (CDE) will not focus exclusively on the EU. We must appreciate, nonetheless, that however we define Europe, the EU is an organization that contains a majority of the European countries, and the lion's share of wealth and population within it. Following the most recent enlargement (2007), the EU now comprises 27 member states and more than 490 million citizens.

The EU single market is the largest economy in the world, accounting for 31 % of the world´s economic output. On a political level the EU has gradually gained more and more significance. Established in 1951 as an organization to pool the steel and coal resources in post-war Europe, it now has the legislative competence to regulate a plethora of policy areas on a regional level, and creates the framework for a large share of the legislation made at the national level.

In addition, though not adopted by all member states, the Euro proves to be one of the strongest currencies in the world and brings stability to European economies in times of crises. Due to its dominant position in Europe, many of the problems for which Cultural Diplomacy can be a solution exist within the context of the EU. A consideration of Cultural Diplomacy in Europe will therefore have an inevitable focus on the activity of, and challenges faced by, the European Union.

The process of European integration is considered by some to be a success story, while less welcomed by others. What cannot be disputed, however, is that it has taken place. As a consequence, Europeans are communicating, interacting, cooperating and negotiating with each other more than ever. The EU is by no means a single homogeneous body: its regulations and directives are the product of negotiations between representatives of the member states and the European Parliament. Day-to-day interaction between Europeans, however, goes far beyond the negotiations taking place in the de facto capital of Europe, Brussels.

The majority of the trade of individual EU countries takes place with other European countries. Of Germany´s top ten import and export partners, for example, seven are EU member states. In 2007, the UK exported goods and services worth £127 billion to EU countries and worth only £93 billion to non-EU countries. This growth has been facilitated by the Schengen Agreement, which has lead to the removal of border controls across a large section of the EU. In addition, around 90% of European universities take part in the Erasmus Program: 1.9 million students have taken part and spent at least one semester at another European university. More Europeans work, travel, or study abroad than ever before.

European Diversity

Just as Europe cannot be considered a single country, so the citizens of Europe are not a single people. The motto of the EU – Unity in Diversity – was not chosen without reason. The historical development of Europe has created inevitable divides on many different levels. In addition to differences between nations, we can also identify cultural barriers within individual countries, and across groups of countries, such as those based on religion, for example. In 2008, 62% of EU citizens believed discrimination on the basis of ethnic origin was widespread.

This type of discrimination is not only aimed at immigrants of non-European descent. The 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union saw many former Eastern Bloc countries join the EU. Some of these countries are demarcated by borders that were drawn at the end of WW I and WW II, and have resulted in serious problems of rights of minorities. These Central and Eastern European countries, it can be observed, have also lived through a different second half of the 20th century than the countries in Western Europe.

When not understood properly, or ignored, these fault lines are obstacles to cooperation. Their existence is also exacerbated by negative stereotyping. There is in most cases nothing inherently confrontational about cultural differences. It is only when such cultural differences are manipulated and encouraged by divisive influences – radicals within society, corrupt leaders, and careless media coverage that they become problems. It is an unfortunate reality that many citizens within Europe have their opinions of each other determined, at some level, by these prejudices.

In many parts of Europe, recent violent conflict represents an even bigger obstacle to mutual trust. The first half of the 1990s saw the disintegration of the Federal People´s Republic of Yugoslavia and a destructive war in the Western Balkans. Serbs, Croats and Bosnians, who had previously lived more or less peacefully together, engaged in a bitter and bloody struggle for territory and independence.

Thousands were killed; many more were displaced or became refugees. The challenges this region faces today are to move on from the past by accepting and integrating minorities into the respective communities, and to move from a situation of mutual tension to one of trust. Relations with Russia are another issue many European countries have to deal with. Though under a geographical definition the western part of Russia could be considered European, it is very much its own entity. Soft power is needed to bring Russia and Europe closer together.

The Need for Cultural Diplomacy

Cultural diplomacy, the facilitation of constructive cultural exchange, is an increasingly important tool in today's environment. If the citizens of European countries are better able to understand the reasons behind the positions and the behavior of each other they are more likely to cooperate in a constructive manner. Such an improvement in relations will have an impact on trade and business relationships, tourism, and academic cooperation. The case studies below are included to illustrate the need for cultural diplomacy within Europe.

In Bilateral Relations

Between Poland and Germany

Poland and Germany are two of the biggest countries in Central Europe and are connected through a dynamic history that is characterized by both conflict and cooperation. In an effort to promote a symbiotic German-Polish relationship, both are actively engaged in the structures of the EU and are dedicated to productive economic, cultural, and political collaboration. The frequent, sporadic appearance of tensions, however, shows that misunderstandings between the two countries are still not uncommon, and are an indication that the history, tradition and values each country has could be understood better by the other.

The troublesome past shared by the countries, and the problems this causes today, is demonstrated by the outrage that broke out in Poland in 2006 when Erika Steinbach, chair of the German Association of Displaced People, began a campaign for the establishment of a center commemorating those Germans expelled from Poland after World War II. While Steinbach claimed only to seek to memorialize this part of their history, Polish critics found it unacceptable that a commemoration to what they considered only a small part of the consequences of WWII would be immortalized, overshadowing the atrocities that had been committed by Germans against Poles during the war. According to the Polish Ambassador to Germany, Dr. Marek Prawda, the misunderstandings of the past are based above all on the fact that Poland and Germany have concerned themselves with certain topics of history at different times, stating, "It is the unequal timing of the debates that led to misunderstandings."

Misunderstanding and miscommunication have caused disruptions in German-Polish relations, leading at times to the cancellation of political talks or the cessation of funding for joint German-Polish programs. In order for these two neighbors to cooperate successfully at the political, economic, or societal levels, stereotypes and negative preconceptions must be addressed. Cultural diplomacy therefore represents a valuable step forwards.

Between Italy and Germany

Recent history illustrates that Italy and Germany share a common political passage: a process of unification at the end of the nineteenth century, allies during World War II, the fall of the Monarchy and the birth of a Republic, a strong presence of Soviet Communism, the founding of the German Democratic Republic (1949) in Germany and the powerful "Partito Comunista Italiano" in Italy (1921). After World War II both countries saw so-called "capitalistic" economic acceleration after the "forced" and necessary period of reconstruction under the control of the allies.

There remain, however, many striking differences between Italy and Germany. The first barrier is language, the importance of which should not be overlooked. Secondly, the two nations have different positions on politics and economics. They have different societal models, and the cultures differ in many ways. Despite these differences, more emphasis has been put on the relationship due to events in the 1990s: the end of "first republic" in Italy due to the political-financial impeachments of several parties, the "revolution" that sparked the fall of the iron curtain in Berlin and the consequent unification with East Germany, and the birth of so called "Berlusconism" in Italy.

Mr. Berlusconi´s remarks have not always had a positive influence on the German-Italian relationship either, expressing to a German Member of the European Parliament, for example, that the person in question would be an excellent candidate for featuring as a Kapo in a movie on concentration camps. Gian Franco Rusconi, Director of the "Centro per gli Studi Italo-Germanci" of the Kessler Foundation, said, "for a long time I have been telling my close friends, colleagues and researchers that relations between Italy and Germany are on the decline. The current situation is apparently reciprocal and not particularly notable. Yet close analysis of bilateral policy between the usual diplomatic contacts, amongst the economic sectors and indeed the images and models between our two countries imply a sort of uneasy alienation".

It is clear that cultural diplomacy is necessary as a mechanism to keep relations between countries in good shape, even when it concerns European countries that have worked together constructively for many decades. To maintain the current levels of cooperation politics and civil society need to strive for understanding between the European players.

In Intra-national Relations

Germany

The fall of the Berlin Wall on the night of November 9th marked the starting point of German reunification and the end of the Cold War. Over the years, however, the Berlin Wall and the barrier across Germany came to be much more than just a physical structure. It represented a psychological barrier between East and West Germany. The Wall separated two groups with different experiences of government, the economy and the media. These differences could not be removed on a single night, and evidence of this mental border exists today. After 18 years of reunification, Germany is still dealing with societal and economic problems that stem from the former East-West division.

Only 13 percent of the East German population claim that their lives have improved since the days of the GDR. 75 percent of West German residents, in contrast, yearn for an end to the financial contributions to "Aufbau Ost": the reconstruction of the East. Economic inequality remains, and glorification of the past in Eastern Germany has supported stereotypes and prejudice on both sides. This division has been exacerbated by national media, who have at times been guilty of stirring up tension and exacerbating differences.

The East-West division in Germany shows that cultural diplomacy is not only required on the international level, but also on the intra-national level. Wherever there are cultural differences between groups, so cultural diplomacy can be used as a tool to address these differences.

Hungary

The Treaty of Trianon (1920) determined that Hungary would lose almost two-thirds of her territory, with Romania, Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) and Czechoslovakia the main territorial beneficiaries from this agreement. This treaty created Hungarian minorities in a number of countries (Romania, for example) and therefore a need for improved intercultural understanding within these states. One can also identify significant Hungarian communities in the Ukraine, Austria and Croatia.

Hungary itself, by comparison, is also home to minority groups, such as the Roma. In the census of 2001, 3 % of the population (over 300,000 people), professed to belong to an officially recognized minority. According to less official estimates, however, the actual percentage lies between 8% and 10%, with the Roman constitution more than half a million. The average size of the Roma families is much larger than the Hungarian families, but the average life expectancy is much lower, and the number of retired Roma is very low indeed.

These demographics are the result of a combination of poor social circumstances and a higher birth-rate. The lack of education among the Roma is a very serious problem; only 60 % of Roma children finish primary school, just 1,8 % graduate from grammar school and 0,2 % have higher education qualification. Most of the Roma live in small settlements, so the closing of primary schools affects them badly. The need for cultural diplomacy is urgent when we consider that this situation cannot be addressed until steps are taken to understand Roma culture and customs, and to better integrate the community into Hungarian society, a process that must be supported by the Hungarian government and the society in general.

Turning back to Hungarian minorities abroad, we can also identify difficulties in this area. The Hungarian community in present-day Slovakia, for example, has coexisted more or less peacefully with the Slovaks there for hundreds of years. The creation of the state of Czechoslovakia, and more recently Slovakia, however, has left them as a minority within this state. Certain elements within both Hungary and Slovakia have been accused of exacerbating the tension between the two communities for political gains. The language usage of Hungarian minorities in the countries surrounding Hungary also remains a controversial and sensitive issue. Cultural diplomacy initiatives in these areas would reduce the influence that divisive campaigns can have on the general public.

Case Studies in Cultural Diplomacy

Governments, international organizations, and businesses have long recognized the need of understanding how to work with diverse groups of people from around the globe, while creating a basis for mutual cooperation and trust. Though they undertake such initiatives without necessarily using the term "cultural diplomacy", the concepts remain the same. Here are two examples of cultural diplomacy in Europe:

The Erasmus Program

The Erasmus exchange program is an excellent example of Europe-wide academic and cultural cooperation. Founded and financed by the European Union, the scheme also incorporates non-EU members from the European Economic Area such as Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, as well as candidate countries such as Turkey. Around 90% of European universities take part in the Erasmus program, some 3,100 higher education institutions in 31 countries. This is a cooperation that has already benefited almost 2 million students since 1987. The main idea of the program is that students from all over Europe are able to study free of tuition fees at other European universities. Participating students can also acquire additional financial support by way of monthly contributions to daily expenses (the annual budget is in excess of €400million). The scheme enables thousands of youths to live and study abroad at a formational period of their lives. This program facilitates cultural exchange on a bi- and multi-lateral level (Erasmus students often explore and experience their host countries with each other), and greatly enhances intercultural understanding and acceptance. Moreover, the Erasmus scheme is helping to create a pan-European network of young, qualified people, who will be more likely to live and work abroad in the future, and will be more open-minded towards the possibilities of pan-European cooperation.

European Capital of Culture Program

Another initiative of the European Union´s cultural policy is the European Capital of Culture Program. The framework of the program allows a different country each year to name the European Capital of Culture (cities do not need to be located within the EU to participate). Over the course of the year, the city selected will have the financial support (from the EU´s Culture Program) to plan and organize a diverse range of cultural events that will help to improve infrastructure, tourism, and the city´s cultural profile on a national and international level. The program brings attention to cities such as the Hungarian city of Pécs (European Capital of Culture 2010 along with Essen, Germany) and the Transylvanian city Sibiu (Hermannstadt/Nagyszeben- European Capital of Culture 2007), that might otherwise not be known to large parts of Europe.

From 2012 there will be a new procedure for selecting future European capitals of culture. The EU wants the cities to do more to encourage a long-term impact on their cultural development and their environments. The new procedure includes a key follow-up phase once the cities have been selected. Cities wishing to become European capital of culture must prepare a cultural program that meets specific criteria: it must reflect the European character of the event and involve the participation of the people who live there. The European flavor can be seen in the themes chosen and the artists and cultural organizers from different countries cooperating to put on the event. The program should also have a lasting and sustainable impact on the city's long-term cultural, economic and social development.